The Impact of Internal Conflicts on World Poltics Term Paper

The Impact of Internal Conflicts on World Poltics - Term Paper Example From the end of World War II until 2000, over sixteen million perished through internal wars, compared to three and a half million from interstate wars, (Alley 1). For each interstate war within that period, approximately five internal conflicts occurred, the relative totals being 25 and 112 respectively and the incidence of internal war has abated since its peak during the 1990s, although not markedly, (Walensteen and Sollenberg 623)a. Averaging 53 months in duration, internal wars are often protracted; their bitter political effects and legacies of crime, lawlessness and impunity lingering even longer after the guns have fallen silent and even when seemingly settled they often maintain a lethal potential to reignite. Various termed internal, intra-state, or civil wars, these events often lack fine starting and concluding points as the conditions of neither war nor peace testify to inconclusive military outcomes and continuing settlement failure. These conditions harbour unaccountab le local elites exploiting them to loot the national patrimony as much about the causes, costs and impacts of internal conflicts remains essentially domestic, but its international dimensions are usually germane and often telling. Embattled governments invite outsiders in; internal conflicts spread across borders; war within states feed off and sustain commercial penetrations; intergovernmental and externally based non-governmental relief operations establish their presence; and these conflicts evoke an array of external interventions ranging from military infiltrations to United Nations (UN) Security Council enforcement engagements authorised under Chapter Seven of the UN Charter. Criminality is now a significant factor in the internationalisation of internal conflict and hence the comprehension of internal wars therefore requires an appreciation of their international dimensions and implications (Walensteen and Sollenberg 593-600)b. Without denying their significant international dimensions, definitions of intra-state wars focus primarily on domestic origins; events fought between self-aware, defined groups that have organisational capacities to plan and carry out military operations in support of political goals. When viewed as insurgencies, internal wars comprise unconventional armed violence organises to either topple an existing regime or secede from an existing state, (Snow 65 & Thakur 117), a distinctive feature is the widespread entanglement of civilians as agents and victims; and such risk overt targeting by protecting and harbouring combatants, operating inside borders and without sanctuaries to which they can withdraw. This confinement intensifies internal wars, combatants and civilians alike forced to live by the knowledge that, should they survive, they will likely have to physically coexist as former enemies and the evenge enacted locally as an end in itself confuses wide objectives, complicating agreement about negotiating priorities or settlem ent implementation within and between warring factions. Some internal conflicts drag on for so long that few involved retain notions of the originating casus belli or political purpose, the conflict in Angola being an example and to revise Hobbes, internal wars are nasty, brutish and long, (Alley 6) Impacts upon international politics Internal conflicts now cost the international community in a variety of ways. A first cost results from habituation to crisis as the trigger resource mobilisation and claims that such

Workplace bullying Essay Example for Free

Workplace bullying Essay Background of the study: Workplace bullying is a problem and is an important organizational and social concern. This study examined workplace bullying and its effect on job performance and productivity. The research showed how bullying behavior affects a target’s ability to perform their jobs, which can impact the morale of employees and the financial performances of an organization. Workplace bullying is difficult to identify and contain because the harassment usually takes place covertly, many times out of sight of supervisors and coworkers. The central findings of this study (a) showed the frequency of workplace bullying, (b) factors contribute to workplace bullying, (c) respondents perceive level of job perfromance, and (d) revealed a relationship between workplace bullying and its effect on job performance and productivity, (e) discover coping strategies of bully victims. A 2002 survey of 9,000 Canadian federal employees indicated that 42% of female and 15% of male employees reported being bullied in a 2-year period, resulting in more than $180 million in lost time and productivity (Canada Safety Council, 2002). According to Namie and Namie (2003), 82% of employees who had been bullied left their workplace: 38% for health reasons and 44% because they were victims of a low performance appraisal manipulated by a bullying supervisor to show them as incompetent. High turnover of employees can be costly for organizations. Human resource experts calculate the cost of losing and replacing a worker from 25% to 200% of annual compensation, depending on the level of the employee (Melone, 2006). The workplace presents opportunities for a wide range of insidious and intimidating bully tactics. Research indicates a relationship between employee perceptions of bullying and his or her need to spend time at work defending themselves, networking for support, contemplating the circumstances, becoming demotivated and stressed, and taking sick leave (Namie Namie; Needham, 2003; Rigby, 2002). Theoretical/Conceptual Framework: This paper applies Novak’s (1998) theory of learning to the problem of workplace bullying. Novak’s theory offers an understanding of how actions of bullying and responses to bullying can be seen as deriving from individualized conceptualizations of workplace bullying by those involved.  Further, Novak’s theory suggests that training involving Ausubel’s concept of meaningful learning (Ausubel Educational Theory 11(1): 15–25, 1961; Ausubel et al. 1978) which attends to learners’ pre-existing knowledge and allows for new meaning to be constructed regarding workplace bullying can lead to new actions related to workplace bullying. Ideally, these new actions can involve both a reduction in workplace bullying prevalence, and responses to workplace bullying which recognize and are informed by the negative consequences of this workplace dynamic. Second approach that we used is In â€Å"Harassment and Bullying at Work: a Review of the Scandinavian Approach† Einarsen (2000) presents three different causal models that have been used in Scandinavia, namely emphasizing personality traits of the exposed, general characteristics of human interaction in organizations and organizational climate. The first model explores characteristics of the victim and/or offender, and claims that some people are more in the risk zone of being bullied because of their personality. Certain personality traits, such as lower self-esteem, anxiety in social settings and suspiciousness, are claimed to be more common among victims of bullying. As for the offender authoritarian personalities that often react impulsively with aggressiveness, are examples of personality traits that have been discovered in this field of study. Different studies have brought out different traits so there is no confirmation of some traits being more valid than others. Furthermore â€Å"the issue of personality traits in relation to harassment at work is a controversial one, especially as far as the victim is concerned and the position on personality traits as precursors of harassment has been seriously questioned† (Einarsen, 2000:389). The second model is built on the observation that although conflict is a phenomenon found in all organizations, only in some cases interpersonal conflicts lead to battles where the goal is to demolish the other (Einarsen, 2000). Since conflicts are seen as a natural component of organizations this model claims that there are certain human characteristics that are inherent and affects organizations. Some researcher even go as far as saying that harassment is an inherent human characteristic, and therefore believes that attempts to eliminate workplace bullying is useless. Another argument is that scapegoats play an important social role for the organizational climate and it brings other organizational members t ogether (Einarsen, 2000). It  should be noted that the scapegoats does not necessarily have to be an organizational member; it can be an external person or organization, or even an object. Both Leymann (1992) and Einarsen et al. (1994) argue that unresolved interpersonal conflicts threaten to end up in harassments. Whether harassment might be an inherent human characteristic is yet to be explored. A third possibility is that harassment is triggered aftermath from other organizational conflicts (Einarsen, 2000). The third model has received the most attention in Scandinavia, and it stresses the role that organizational factors and work conditions play, such as social environment, workload, or division of tasks. Workplace bullying in this model – is looked upon as caused by the organization itself, that is, by structural and other problems within the organization (Einarsen, 2000). Studies have shown that some factors may be more significant than others for the presence of bullying at work (2000). Leadership, role conflicts, and work control were brought out by Einarsen et al. (1994) to be contributing factors to workplace bullying. Other factors may still be important though, bullying might for example be more likely to occur if the jargon in the workplace in general is more aggressive. The approach of organizational work environment says that organizations with ill conditions might increase workplace bullying. It also suggests that workplace bullying is more likely to occur in particular 15 organizational settings (Einarsen, 2000). These three different models can alone be seen as narrow and one-sided, but Einarsen (2000) stresses the importance for future research to focus on sever al factors, both organizational and personal. Another way of understanding work place bullying is by using Gidden’s Structuration Theory to provide a basis for examining the social processes involved in the approaches adopted by organizations to manage workplace bullying. Giddens’ framework involves a series of stages, with the possibility of barriers between each of the stages. Within this theory strategies between the stages and tactics within the stages could be developed to address the problem of workplace bullying. In 1984, sociologist Giddens presented his theory of Structuration (Giddens, 1984). In simple terms his theory outlines the social processes involved in the evolution of aspects of society. A key component of his theory is the double hermeneutic  process, where people, upon reflection of day to day activities, are able to influence the structure of society by either reproducing current practices or by changing them. School and workplace bullying have a long history within our society and recent ideas have been advanced that challenge the appropriateness of such traditional behavior. Turner (1991) analyzed Giddens’ work and produced a diagrammatic model of his Theory of Structuration. The model with its 11 sensitizing concepts is illustrated in Figure 1. It is proposed in this study to use Turner’s model, which consists of inter-linked but discrete concepts, to provide a framework for illuminating how a social issue, such as workplace bullying, can be managed within an organization. To elucidate the study, below is a schematic diagram that shows how the information gathered is utilized: Figure 2 Conceptual Framework Figure 2 presents the conceptual framework for this study. The researchers believe that the factors contributing to work place bullying can affect the level of performance of such employee. Factors such as abuse of power, self-esteem, perceived threats and organizational culture may affect ones quality of work, productivity, and quality of family-work life. But the diagram also shows degree of coping strategies such as depression, physical injury, and self-expression. Statement of the Problem: This study aimed to investigate the effect of workplace bullying on employees job performance and their coping strategies in the random call center agents in Davao City. It specifically sought to answer the following questions. 1. What are the factors that contribute to workplace bullying in terms of: a. Power; b. Self-esteem; and c. Perceived Threats 2. What are the respondents perceive level of job performance as to: a. Quality of work; b. Productivity; and c. Quality of family work life 3. What is the respondent perceive degree of coping strategies employed regards to: a. Depression; b. Physical injury; and c. Self-Expression Proposed Hypothesis: H1; the factors that contributed to workplace bullying do significantly affect the respondents’ perceived degree of coping strategies employed as to: A.) Depression B.) Productivity C.) Quality of family-work life. Objectives: To know the factors that contributes to workplace bullying in terms of power, self-esteem and perceived threats. To know the respondent’s perceived level of job performance as to quality of work, productivity and quality of family-work life? To know the degree of respondent’s perceived degree of coping strategies employed with regards to depression, physical injury and self-expression. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY VICTIMS OF WORKPLACE BULLYING. This study will be useful to the people who are victims of bullying so that they will be able to develop or imitate the coping strategies of the victims with regard to depression, physical injury and self-expression. The reasons also being revealed why workplace bullying is existing in a particular company will help us to analyze in gathering data that can eradicate or lessen such issue. This study defines the impact of workplace bullying behavior on work productivity, quality of work within  a company THE COMPANY. The company will benefit to this study because this will identify reasons or factors of workplace bullying that need to be considered or to act upon. They can improve in identifying the effects of workplace bullying in employees’ peceived level of job performance as to quality of work, productivity and quality-work life. In this study the management can make decisions and strategy to eradicate bullying in the workplace in order to provide healthy relationships within the company. It also helps the organization to be aware on how to give insightful ways to eliminate this harmful behavior. It helps the company to be challenged to create policies regarding workplace bullying. THE FUTURE RESEACHERS OF THIS SUBJECT MATTER. This will help future researchers to gather secondary data and gain ideas. Scope and Limitations of the Study The proposed study will be limited only on the random people who worked in call center industry. This study will be limited only to the selected call center company within Davao City area. This study adds to the body of knowledge regarding adult bullying behavior in the workplace. Data from this research provide leaders and managers’ insight into the prevalence of the mistreatment of employees and how it affects the productivity of their workers.

Titus :: essays research papers

Titus" by William Shakespeare, Titus was a decent and honorable man. Titus loved and cherished his daughter Lavinia. He was a traditionalist, and stuck by his morals. Titus was brave. He showed he was loyal to those he cared for. He honored his family. Titus was a respected soldier and leader. Titus was a decent man because he loved and cherished his daughter Lavinia. Being Lavinia was his only daughter of twenty-six children; he spoke highly of her. In act 1, Titus addresses the public by saying "Kind Rome, that hast thus loving reserved, The cordial of mine age to glad my heart. Lavinia live, outlive thy father's days, and fame's eternal date, for virtues praise" (138). He is describing the link between Lavinia and his heart, and telling her to outlive, and go beyond him. In act 3 Titus shows he would do anything for Lavinia after her hands were chopped off. He says "Give me a sword, I'll chop off my hands too" (194). Being willing to sacrifice his own hands for his daughter shows his deep love for her. Lavinia means so much to Titus, that in act 3 he explains "But that which gives my soul the greatest spurn, Is dear Lavinia, dearer than my soul" (195), meaning his dear Lavinia's misery is giving his soul the greatest amount of hurt. Af ter comparing Ovid's description of the forest to where Titus and his sons hunted, he cries out "O' had we never, never hunted there! Patterned by that the poet here describes, By nature made for murders and for rapes" (214). Titus cares so much for his daughter that he is blaming himself for hunting in a place that is set for a murder or rape to occur. Being a traditionalist is another quality that made Titus an honorable man. In act 1 Titus shows his respect for religious tradition by telling Tamora, "Alive and dead, and for their brethren slain, Religiously they ask a sacrifice. To this your son is marked, and die he must, T'appease their groaning shadows that are gone" (135). He is obeying religion and will kill Tamora's oldest son (Alarbus), for those who have sinned in his family. When Alarbus is being buried in act 1, Titus makes a speech that states "In peace and honour rest you here, my sons; Rome's readiest champions, repose you here in rest, Secure from worldly chances and mishaps.

Many Are the Crimes

The period of McCarthyism brought strong anti-communist campaign in the United States which started in the 1940s and ended in the 1950s. This era was also known as the Second Red Scare. There were fears of Communist infiltration on American organizations and â€Å"espionage by Soviet agents† (Fried, 124). It was a troubled time during the McCarthy era where many Americans where charged of being Communists or being Communist sympathizers. Many of them went through a series of investigations and interrogations by government committees and agencies. These investigations were directed at individuals who work for the government, those in the entertainment business, union members and educators. Although evidences were weak and often exaggerated, suspicions were given more weight. As a result, many Americans lost their jobs and some were even incarcerated (Fried, 150). In Ellen Schrecker’s book Many Are the Crimes, the author describes the persecution of the Communist Party in the U.S. from the 1920s until the 1950s. Schrecker believed that McCarthyism contributed to the downfall of Communism in America and thrusted the country into a gulf of right-wing sentiments which plagues the U.S. until now ( Reeves, Are You Now†¦A new study of McCarthyism and the legacy of HUAC, 1998). The first three chapters of Schrecker’s book explain the Communist Party’s emergence in the 1930s in America. She explained why the Communist Party was susceptible to attacks by the U.S. government. The second chapter â€Å"Red Baiters, Inc.† is an extensive analysis of people and institutions which characterized anticommunism in the 1920s and 1930s (Schrecker, 41). The author outlines Franklin D. Roosevelt’s stance on Communism. According to Schrecker, President Roosevelt’s approach to Communism was â€Å"non-ideological† (p. 87), there were occasions that he did not pay attention to the existence of the Communist Party and there were times that he supported political suppression. Roosevelt authorized the FBI under J. Edgar Hoover to look into the Communist Party’s movement because they saw it as â€Å"a threat to national security† (p. 89). In Chapter 4, Schrecker discusses the U.S. government’s propaganda that the Communist Party was being influenced by Moscow. In Chapter 5, the author talks about how Americans saw Communism as a national threat through â€Å"subversion, espionage and sabotage† (p. 181). In the third part of Ellen Schrecker’s book, explains the â€Å"instruments† of anti-communism and how the FBI under J. Edgar Hoover used different tactics to purge communists in America by wiretapping and surveillance (p. 239). Schrecker discussed the role of Senator John McCarthy in the â€Å"anti-communist crusade†, and his â€Å"disregard for civil liberties† (p. 265). The last chapters of the book Many Are the Crimes, Schrecker talks about the experiences of Clinton Jencks and members of the workers union and how they were persecuted and eventually lost their jobs.   Schrecker explains the impact of McCarthyism in the American society, how it â€Å"destroyed the left† and paralyzed the Communist Party (p. 369). In context, Schrecker’s book exposed the effects of the McCarthy era not only in politics but also in the entertainment business wherein the Hollywood blacklist dictated who would produce movies and star in those films. Screenwriters, actors and actresses did not escape interrogation by the anticommunist committees and those found guilty of espionage were sent to jail (Whitfield, p. 194). The unions played an important part in those days because they talked about racial concerns in terms of equality. The union also provided support for women’s issues. It showed the inequality in terms of salaries that female workers get and how they are poorly-paid in comparison with the male workers. The union also encouraged women to be strong leaders. These progressive attempts of bringing change in the role of women in society and the work force were halted during the McCarthy era (Cherny, p.10). For the most part the greatest damage done during the McCarthy era was the destruction of the American left and the decline of the Communist Party in America. In terms of social policy, McCarthyism interrupted the reforms needed for health insurance. The country’s â€Å"cultural and intellectual life† became stagnant because of censorship during the McCarthy era (Schrecker, The Legacy of McCarthyism). The downfall of the McCarthy era was due to the decline of public support and court decisions which upheld individual rights and freedom (Fried, p. 197). With the current situation in the U.S., people are more vigilant and aware of the effects of McCarthyism. This episode will serve as a â€Å"cautionary tale for future generations† (Rosen, Could It Happen Again?). Works Cited Cherny, Robert W., William Issel and Kieran Walsh Taylor. American Labor and the Cold War: Grassroots Politics and Postwar Political Culture. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 2004. Fried, Albert. McCarthyism, The Great American Red Scare: A Documentary History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. Reeves, Thomas C. â€Å"Are You Now†¦.A New Study of McCarthyism and the Legacy of HUAC†.   14 June 1998. http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/06/14/reviews/980614. 14reevest.html. Retrieved on 7 January 2008. Rosen, Ruth. â€Å"Could It Happen Again?† 12 May 2003. http://www.commondreams.org/ views03/0512-01.htm. Retrieved on 7 January 2008. Schrecker, Ellen. â€Å"The Legacy of McCarthyism†. Retrieved on 7 January 2008. Schrecker, Ellen. Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1999. Whitfield, Stephen J. The Culture of the Cold War. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.                                 

Impact of Custom Union to Kazakhstan

custom uniMurat Serikbayev 20123402 Iimpact of customs union between Belarus, Russia and Kazakhstan' to the car market in our country I want to start my Tethys from the history of Kazakhstan's car market, what are the prospects for the future and how it is influenced by the customs union. Before the financial crisis Kazakhstan’s car market demonstrated impressive growth, more than 25% annually, which is higher than in most developed countries.Used car market also was developed because it was cheap to buy a car abroad with a little customs tariffs in our country. So most of people preferred to have a used foreign car rather than a new car produced in Kazakhstan , it is might be because of quality of own produced cars and there are not so many choices. But after the crisis the car market rapidly declined approximately 30-40 %. The biggest factor of the recession, is a significant rise in the cost of loans by Kazakhstan banks and tightening requirements for borrowers.Used car mar ket also showed the downturn. Until 2008, every second car buyer used the bank loan. Today to get the loan for purchasing a car can only one of the 20 buyers. Nowadays Kazakhstan’s car market have 11 companies which officially sell about 40 foreign car brands. In addition to global brands we have the biggest Russian company â€Å"AvtoVaz†. Also we have own car plant in Ust Kamenogorsk which produces a car brands like AvtoVaz, Chevrolet, SsangYong, Chance, IVECO and Skoda for up to 45000 cars per year.Although until recently, the phrase â€Å"Kazakhstan's car† sounded like nonsense. In July 2011 Kazakhstan fully joined to customs union with Belarus and Russia. In that time the public and the media met this statement negatively, arguing the right to freedom of choice of products because customs tariffs for cars increased up to 30% and plus 12% VAT, so it means that it is disadvantageously to buy a new or used car abroad in order to save money they are used to do i n past like in 2007.But some said that in order to develop our production, it is necessary to protect market from third country imports. Also car dealers also agree that it will increase demand for officially new cars, as Vadim Artamonov says, Director, Rolf Import Kazakhstan  «In general, as for the market, a milestone event occurred last year. Preferential import duties on cars have been canceled for the first time since last July and Kazakhstan fully joined the Customs Union. Accordingly, this enabled the market to grow significantly.Now the market growth stands at about 30% annually.  ». In 2011, the amount of vehicles sold by official dealers in Kazakhstan increased by 49. 6% as compared to 2010. I think and aware that joining to customs union will affect positively and will give more advantages for our car producers, and we will develop own car industry like for example in Malaysia, Thailand and Brazil. For example initially in Malaysia cars produced from imported parts, b ut gradually is localized production.Now their own car marked developed well and besides the domestic market the company's products are exported to UK and some European countries, they have brand like Proton, it’s Malaysia's biggest automaker, is specialized in the production of vehicles under license from Mitsubishi. So we can do the same things, today one of fifth cars sold in the country – Kazakhstan’s production. But the potential of the domestic consumer market of these products is much higher. Also we can deliver our products to the Russian and Belarusian automotive markets.And I want to say that that it is not just developing car market in Kazakhstan, it’s also developing our economic as whole because it is imply a new jobs for our citizens means less unemployment, we invest our money in our country, not investing another countries as previously. I think we have to support and buy own produced cars instead of buying used foreign cars, and we should make a contribution on that in order to develop our production. Another thing also I want to mention is that our dealers are ready to provide loans for their cars on affordable terms and it would be good opportunity for customers.Because it is a new car and it has a guarantee from 3 to 5 years. According to experts, in an environment where the cost of imported second-hand cars increases so that they cease to be available to the masses, and new import cars get very luxury for our customers, so optimal combination of price and quality would be own produced cars. ( ) ? ? ? – , , ? . ? . . . ? . , ? ? . . , 90% . . , ? , , ? - – . . ? ? ? ? . ? ? .

Science and Religion Essay Example

Science and Religion Essay Example Science and Religion Essay Science and Religion Essay For years now, the world has made scientific breakthroughs of every kind, whether it be the moon landing or the discovery of the Highs boson particle. Such discoveries have given the critics of Creationism ammunition to attack religious believers, and as I have seen, said attacks have been very successful in turning people away from the goodness of God. Nowadays, high schools have become very secular establishments, with any mention or discussion of religion or God being scoffed at and written off as antsy. This chapter from Henry J. Earrings book is a fascinating look into his life, and how a scientist of his caliber had to deal with such scientific discoveries affecting his faith. J. Reuben Clacks quote about intellectual courage I believe is the most profound and important part of this chapter. Clark states that the beliefs of respectable church officials may be shaken, due to fear of rejection from their academic colleagues. I strongly believe that Clacks supercharged statement to the Saints about these scientific discoveries not changing the ultimate truths of the church is very true and very relevant; God does not change, He is the same yesterday, today, and forever. However, to deny this scientific evidence would be a mistake as well. Discarding the theory of evolution or the Big Bang Theory would almost be ridiculous, due to the massive amount of evidence supporting these theories. But, why do science and religion have to exist as opposites, one without the other? Is it possible that science and religion are intertwined in this world and that people do not have the knowledge r wits to see it? I firmly believe so. While I may have a strong belief in the Gospel and God, I have begun to see more and more that the world around us is the work of our great Heavenly Father. Both Albert Einstein and Max Planck were men of faith; Einstein being a pantheist, and Max Planck being an observant Lutheran. Such men were infinitely important to various discoveries in the scientific world, and they discovered these breakthroughs with a belief in God. In 1937, Planck actually delivered a lecture entitled, Religion and Natural Science where he stated that both religion and science require a belief in God. These men were not the only people to believe that scientific discoveries came from knowing the mind of God himself; others included Johannes Keeper and Sir Isaac Newton. These people realized that the universe has a set structure and order about it that comes directly from God himself. Unfortunately, the modern world has this need for a physical manifestation of heavenly beings and their higher power. God does not bend to the will of man; God is tot subject to what people demand of him because he is all powerful and our ultimate creator. This has led to a decrease in the belief in God, especially in recent times, and believers are typically mocked for their beliefs in the secular world. Many secular scholars have tried to debase the Biblical timeline as stated in the Bible, especially after the discovery of radioactive decay in rocks. This discovery led scientists to believe that the world was over four billion years old, and therefore whilst debunking the so-called Biblical age of the Earth that was said to be only bout 6,000 years old. However, we as human beings dont know exactly how God operates, how He goes about creating things, how He perceives time as opposed to our perception of time. This is one of the great many mysteries of God that man has yet to uncover and probably will never uncover, due to the fact that God does not need manifest a sign among our rebellious generation. For all the preachings of tolerance and love that society teaches today, there seems to be a great deal of ignorance and intolerance (on both steadfast scientific livers and devout Christians). People nowadays have completely ruled out the possibility of science and religion having anything to do with each other whatsoever; there is no happy medium, and there probably never will be. The world around us is a pure manifestation of Gods goodness and love. However, I dont believe that that nearness that scientific evidence or theories are instantly wrong. I have wrestled with this topic of discussion for many years now, as I have longed to know the truth about the relationship between science and religion. The conclusion I accept is that God manifests his works through science; as technology becomes more and more advanced and we learn more about the world around us in a scientific sense, the more I believe that God took into account the great detail that was needed for this world to be created. I personally believe that if people were to open their minds and accept that God need not be the enemy of science, the world could be understood in a vastly different way, and we as humans could begin to see into the mind of God himself.

ESL Beginner Reading Comprehension Cooking Dialogue

ESL Beginner Reading Comprehension Cooking Dialogue In this dialogue, you will practice speaking about daily routines by focusing on cooking. Notice that the present simple is used to speak about daily routines. Adverbs of frequency tell us how often we do something and include usually, sometimes, never, etc.. Practice the dialogue with your partner and then interview each other about how you do certain tasks you enjoy. Cooking (At a friends house) Carol: This is a lovely house!Martha: Thank you. Carol, we call it home. Carol: Its very close to work, isnt it?Martha: Yes, it is. I always walk to work - even when it rains! Carol: I usually take the bus. It takes so long!Martha: How long does it take? Carol: Oh, it takes about 20 minutes.Martha: That is a long time. Well, have some cake. Carol: (taking a bite of some cake) this is delicious! Do you bake all of your own cakes?Martha: Yes, I usually bake something at the weekend. I like having sweets in the house. Carol: Youre a wonderful cook!Martha: Thank you, its nothing really. Carol: I never cook. Im just hopeless. My husband, David, usually does all the cooking.Martha: Do you often go out to eat? Carol: Yes, when he doesnt have time to cook, we go out to eat somewhere.Martha: There are some wonderful restaurants in the city. Carol: Too many! You can eat at a different restaurant every day. Monday - Chinese, Tuesday - Italian, Wednesday - Mexican, on and on ... Check your understanding with this multiple choice comprehension quiz. More Dialogue Practice - Includes level and target structures/language functions for each dialogue.

3 Examples of Problems with Parallel Structure

3 Examples of Problems with Parallel Structure 3 Examples of Problems with Parallel Structure 3 Examples of Problems with Parallel Structure By Mark Nichol In each of the following sentences, sentence construction obscures the complementary relationship between parallel phrases. Discussion following each example explains the problem, and revisions illustrate solutions. 1. Follow this step with user support and usage monitoring to ensure a smooth transition and optimal user experience during and post-implementation. The phrase â€Å"during and post-implementation† is treated as if it is an instance of suspensive hyphenation, but the sentence is incomplete with a noun after during: â€Å"Follow this step with user support and usage monitoring to ensure a smooth transition and an optimal user experience during implementation and postimplementation.† However, the prefixed word postimplementation is correct but unwieldy, so simply withhold the repetition and replace the prefix with a free-standing conjunction: â€Å"Follow this step with user support and usage monitoring to ensure a smooth transition and an optimal user experience during and after implementation.† 2. There seems to be an idea that blaming the other side for failure is as good, if not better, than getting something done in a bipartisan way. If a parenthetical phrase has been interjected into a sentence, in its absence, the base sentence must be syntactically valid. Here, the result of a test deletion of â€Å"if not better† is â€Å"There seems to be an idea that blaming the other side for failure is as good than getting something done in a bipartisan way.† Obviously, something is wrong- a repetition of as is necessary, and than belongs in the parenthesis: â€Å"There seems to be an idea that blaming the other side for failure is as good as, if not better than, getting something done in a bipartisan way.† 3. This regulation helps guarantee the financial services industry upholds its obligation to protect consumers and ensure that its systems are sufficiently constructed to prevent cyberattacks to the fullest extent possible. The conjunction that is sometimes unnecessary (â€Å"Do you think it’s required in this sentence?†), but if it employed in a given phrase, it should be included in a complementary phrase in the same sentence, as here: â€Å"This regulation helps guarantee that the financial services industry upholds its obligation to protect consumers and ensure that its systems are sufficiently constructed to prevent cyberattacks to the fullest extent possible.† (Without that in place after guarantee, the reader is initially misled into thinking that the regulation guarantees the industry itself rather than something about the industry.) Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:How Many Tenses in English?Try to vs. Try and20 Movies Based on Shakespeare Plays

Interview of A Family Friend Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Interview of A Family Friend - Essay Example The interviewee discussed issues concerning his hobby is football. He also discussed issues related to his dating experience during his college days. Moreover, the informant clearly stated his position regarding gender roles in the contemporary society today. For example, the informant viewed equality in terms gender roles in the society. According to McCarter, both men and women should be accorded equal opportunities in promoting societal growth. Currently, the interviewee is married with two children and considered a senior citizen. He also works in an information technology firm and believes in Christianity. It is believed that family usually comes first in most households today. Families play important roles in the nurturing and growth of family members. Usually consisted of the father, mother and siblings, the father is normally perceived to be the head of the family. Family ensures that all members get access to the basic needs such food, clothing and shelter. They also ensure members are comfortable in their daily experiences. Each and every individual has various life experiences that he or she goes through. The informant, Mr McCarter had an interesting experience in terms of the family experiences. Being the only boy among their siblings, he faced various experiences in terms of the daily chores performed in the house and the general way of living. As a child, McCarter related well with his family members. He performed the tasks assigned to him in time. As he grew into the adolescent stage, at times he ignored chores assigned to him. For example, he says there was a day he deliberately refused to clean the fridge and it was his turn. Grounding was the consequence of his actions. As he matured he had no problems with his parents or sisters. Generally, McCarter had good relationship ties with his family members. This was enabled by the good moral values that were constantly taught by his parents.

Investment and protofolio risk for microsoft Essay

Investment and protofolio risk for microsoft - Essay Example Another risk associated in this problem is the so called – financial risk, which is the ambiguity introduced by the manner of financing the firm. Taking for example if Microsoft has to outsource to finance the whole company, it has to repay fixed financing charges such as interest expenses and return of principal amount before paying its shareholders. This then increases the risk of shareholders’ investment due to the preference of distributing its assets. Liquidity risk is the uncertainty over the ability to sell an investment in the secondary market which is Microsoft’s ability to sell its asset or convert non cash assets to cash in order to finance the company. Another risk connected in investment decisions is the Exchange rate risk or the uncertainty over the domestic currency value of a foreign currency denominated investment, which means that the value of the money varies with the currency of another country. The risk might be the value of the investment might go down or become lesser especially when it comes to currency conversion. Country risk is also taken into consideration with regards to investment. This is the uncertainty over the political or economic environment in which the investment is located. A major factor for investment decisions is the political and economic stability of a particular country where the investment is located, this is because, the more stable the political and economic environment is, the more investors are attracted and therefore, the more profit the company may generate. Another risk to be considered is the credit risk or the uncertainty over whether the issuer of a fixed income security will deliver the contractual cash flows which means, the ability of Microsoft to attract creditors for additional financing or its ability to collect money form its deliveries and services to its customers who purchased on account. Sometimes, credit risk is also carried when creditors were

The Gilded Bronzes of Cartoceto di Pergola Essay

The Gilded Bronzes of Cartoceto di Pergola - Essay Example The late Republican period was known to use monumental images to underline Roman power (The Famous Gilded Bronzes). The fact that these spectacular sculptures were discovered in 1946 as mostly fragments in a shallow pit by two farmers working in their field near the City of Pergola makes their reproduction in such detail quite amazing. However, because they were in fragments, the sculptures were saved from being melted down for re-use of the metals, a common practice in ancient times. Gian Mario Spacca, president of the region of the Marches, is quoted as saying, "This group of gilded bronzes conveys all the beauty and mystery of Ancient Rome . . . Their unknown story and accidental discovery are a remarkable demonstration of the miracle of these lands, the Marches, which can reveal superb works of art, testimony to the talent and importance of a culture recognized all over the world" (The Famous Gilded Bronzes). It took from 1948 to 1986 to restore and reconstruct these statues. The very fact that these statues were destroyed triggers the imagination. The figures are obviously based on actual mo dels. Could it be that the group fell out of favor at some time, and that is why the statues were crumbled and buried Could the figures be related in some way to Augustus It has been determined that they were created in the 1st century B.C., but when were they buried and why were they destroyed Historical Background The Roman Republic was established in 509 B.C., but political rivalries in the first century B.C. led to civil wars and the eventual collapse of the Republic. The Roman imperial period began in 30-27 B.C. with the principate of Augustus. Between 27 B.C. and A.D. 14, Rome was transformed into a city of marble. Julius Caesar had been assassinated in 44 B.C. and his nephew Octavius ruled as Emperor Augustus. The Hellenistic or Augustan period introduced the accurate depiction of age from children to adult to old age. Use of bronze made possible immediacy and naturalistic detail (Hemingway 3). Comparison of the gilded bronze family group of Pergola with the Greek sculptures of 50 B.C. to 1 B.C. indicate many similarities in style. Because it is not known or even conjectured that any specific sculptor created the family group, it is quite possible that a Greek sculptor was responsible or that the style was copied. The Romans first came into contact with the Greeks in the 3rd century B.C. in Southern Italy and in Sicily where Greek colonies had been established five hundred years earlier (Roman Sculpture). The illustrations on page 7 offer comparisons with each other. The knight (A) in the family group (late 1st century B.C.) is bald with one lock of hair towards the forehead, closely set eyes and bitterly straight mouth (The Gilded Bronzes: Knight). He is thought to be mature, between 40 and 50 years old. The tunic worn by the knight is one worn by a Roman officer of high rank. The statue of the young boy (B), thought to be Gaius, adopted grandson of Emperor Augustus, also resembles the knight, but with a softer expression (Portrait Statue of Young Boy). Another statue (C), dated 1st century B.C./A.D., shows a man carrying two ancestral busts. The one on the right could be the knight in the family gro

Managing Motivation within an Union Setting Essay

Managing Motivation within an Union Setting - Essay Example Also I have tried identify the limitations of the existing practices and further improvements for betterment of work life were suggested. The study of the subject on problems faced by employees in a unionized environment and the need for motivation is of lot of relevance in the present industrial scenario. Especially in U.K where the entire economy of the country is often controlled by powerful unions who define the work approaches to be followed by organizations, often resulting in the slowing down of the economy (Thomas Turner, et al, 2002). Presently however the situation has improved slightly in U.K because of the strong influence of European markets on U.K. economy. Employment relations in U.K, were a victim of improper communication between the stake holders and the stake holders pursuing their own interests rather than the common industry interests. As a result the scene was chaotic and conflicts rose between the Union strongholds, managements of various organizations and the Government. It is almost impossible to single out any part to blame but collectively employment relations suffered greatly, as a result economic growth took the back seat and new employable areas almost vanished. When situation looked grim and almost impossible to repair dramatic changes took place. ... What brought such a sudden change in their attitude is proper dialogue and a establishment of a transparent communication among the stake holders. It is not that there is no communication system previously, They have learnt what are the communication barriers which are hampering the process and they have successfully removed them. In U.S however the situation varies greatly. Because of the difference in social culture and work culture and different work ethics the U.S never really required the presence of unions and hence their presence never really controlled the economy (Helene Mulholland et al, 2007) of U.S nor they had a telling effect in defining work ethics to the managements of organizations. Though unions are meant for supporting the employees cause because many times they are controlling the opportunities and growth opportunities of employees. The call of the day presently in job market is professionalism. Organizations have preferred and are doing so, people with a high degree of professionalism because they expect people with a high degree of professionalism to know their job well and seemingly their efficiency will be better than ordinary employees. Presently opportunities are a plenty for people of high professionalism. Job scenario the present is vastly different from the past in many ways and presently because of the variety and the huge number of opportunities existing employees are often changing their jobs, always on the lookout for a bigger fatter deal( Smitha Gupta & Manisha Agarwal et al, 2007). Previous concepts like safe employment and employee retention for a longer duration are taking backseat. Unions used to play a stellar role in the past to

Consumer Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 2

Consumer Behaviour - Essay Example Microsoft’s Xbox, Sony’s PlayStation Series and Nintendo’s GameCube games all have been around for a number of years though still these big market players have failed to identify sizeable niche market segments game consoles that exist to date in the industry. Nokia has both the resource capability and technology to enter this market segment with ease in design and planning (Gale Reference Team, 2008). For instance all three game console manufacturers mentioned above along with a sundry of other small and medium companies have been able to increase their market shares despite an ongoing global economic recession. Nokia’s existing resource and technology capabilities would need proper directional guidance from trained hands, especially the technical and managerial staff. Already the above three market leaders’ status has been challenged by many small and medium scale manufacturers whose ability to identify niche market segments in keeping with consumer demographics is said to be one of the reasons for their success (Development and Learning in Organizations, journal, 2003). For instance Nokia’s success in mobile telephone device manufacturing can be utilized to produce a game console that successfully incorporates some of its already tried and abandoned mobile game features (Gale Reference Team, 2007). So far game consoles haven’t been integrated with mobile telephony technology except at random inclusions carried out by Sony in its PlayStation Series. Most of the current literature and discourse on game consoles are characterized by four basic classes of issues – technological issues, pricing issues, quality issues and safety issues. It’s thus an industry that is ever increasingly being marked by competition and reorientation. Against this backdrop of stiffer competition it’s essential to identify the various issue related outcomes in the industry thus focusing attention on the strategically

Managing Motivation within an Union Setting Essay

Managing Motivation within an Union Setting - Essay Example Also I have tried identify the limitations of the existing practices and further improvements for betterment of work life were suggested. The study of the subject on problems faced by employees in a unionized environment and the need for motivation is of lot of relevance in the present industrial scenario. Especially in U.K where the entire economy of the country is often controlled by powerful unions who define the work approaches to be followed by organizations, often resulting in the slowing down of the economy (Thomas Turner, et al, 2002). Presently however the situation has improved slightly in U.K because of the strong influence of European markets on U.K. economy. Employment relations in U.K, were a victim of improper communication between the stake holders and the stake holders pursuing their own interests rather than the common industry interests. As a result the scene was chaotic and conflicts rose between the Union strongholds, managements of various organizations and the Government. It is almost impossible to single out any part to blame but collectively employment relations suffered greatly, as a result economic growth took the back seat and new employable areas almost vanished. When situation looked grim and almost impossible to repair dramatic changes took place. ... What brought such a sudden change in their attitude is proper dialogue and a establishment of a transparent communication among the stake holders. It is not that there is no communication system previously, They have learnt what are the communication barriers which are hampering the process and they have successfully removed them. In U.S however the situation varies greatly. Because of the difference in social culture and work culture and different work ethics the U.S never really required the presence of unions and hence their presence never really controlled the economy (Helene Mulholland et al, 2007) of U.S nor they had a telling effect in defining work ethics to the managements of organizations. Though unions are meant for supporting the employees cause because many times they are controlling the opportunities and growth opportunities of employees. The call of the day presently in job market is professionalism. Organizations have preferred and are doing so, people with a high degree of professionalism because they expect people with a high degree of professionalism to know their job well and seemingly their efficiency will be better than ordinary employees. Presently opportunities are a plenty for people of high professionalism. Job scenario the present is vastly different from the past in many ways and presently because of the variety and the huge number of opportunities existing employees are often changing their jobs, always on the lookout for a bigger fatter deal( Smitha Gupta & Manisha Agarwal et al, 2007). Previous concepts like safe employment and employee retention for a longer duration are taking backseat. Unions used to play a stellar role in the past to

Mangment 3000 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mangment 3000 - Essay Example The Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is an important tool to assess the needs of the people. II. Providing adequate opportunity to the individual for showcasing his/her abilities, so that the individual is able to contribute to the best of his/ her ability towards the completion of the task and growth of the company. I consider the ‘recognition’ and ‘career development opportunities’ as the most valuable ones. If someone is able to accomplish the assigned task in a satisfactory manner and the management gives it due recognition, the manager personally congratulates the individual, then it proves quite helpful in boosting the motivational levels of the person. If such testimonials are followed by promotional opportunities, then it works wonders for the individual, the team, and of course the company. If the manager is aware about my preferences for doing good work, and he gives due consideration to my needs, this will certainly help in improving the interpersonal communication and mutual respect between employees and managers. My dominant needs are safety needs and self esteem needs. While working for the company having a decent pay package with reasonable assurance of job security results in boosting the self confidence of the individual. This in turn reflects on the manner in which the individual tries to implement the strategies and jobs assigned to him. Self respect is another key attribute which works up to the advantage of the worker. Nobody likes to work for the company if he is treated in a denigrating manner. These needs certainly help while functioning in a group. If we accord due respect to every team member, we are bound to get equal respect from each team member. This brings up the required team spirit for effective functioning of the group. It is worthwhile here to mention that a team is also composed of people with differing abilities, qualification and motivation levels. A cohesive team of highly motivated and

A Paper on Apprenticeship in Chemical Industries Essay Example for Free

A Paper on Apprenticeship in Chemical Industries Essay I would like to acknowledge and extend my heartfelt gratitude to the following persons who have made the completion of this summer project: Our college, METAS ADVENTIST COLLEGE, for giving this opportunity. My college mentor Mr. D. Mukherjee Sir for his vital encouragement and support. Reliance industries ltd. , India’s world renowned corporate house for giving me a wonderful platform to undergo this summer project. Mr. Himanshu Bhatt (HOD), for his good leadership and leading me to the right places. Mr. Suresh Lachhwani, HR Manager for his understanding and assistance. Mr. Geyal Bhatt,HR manager for his constant reminders and much needed motivation. Mr. Vijay Shethna, HR Manager for his guidance. Mr. Naman Buch Mr. Giriraj Mistry for their valuable support and help throughout my project. Most especially to my family and friends. And to God who made all things possible COMPANY PROFILE The Reliance Group, founded by Dhirubhai H. Ambani (1932-2002), is Indias largest private sector enterprise, with businesses in the energy and materials value chain. Groups annual revenues are in excess of USD 27 billion. The flagship company, Reliance Industries Limited, is a Fortune Global 500 company and is the largest private sector company in India Backward vertical integration has been the cornerstone of the evolution and growth of Reliance. Starting with textiles in the late seventies, Reliance pursued a strategy of backward vertical integration in polyester, fibre intermediates, plastics, petrochemicals, petroleum refining and oil and gas exploration and production to be fully integrated along the materials and energy value chain. The Groups activities span exploration and production of oil and gas, petroleum refining and marketing, petrochemicals (polyester, fibre intermediates, plastics and chemicals), textiles and retail. Reliance enjoys global leadership in its businesses, being the largest polyester yarn and fibre producer in the world and among the top five to ten producers in the world in major petrochemical products. The Group exports products in excess of USD 15 billion to more than 100 countries in the world. There are more than 25,000 employees on the rolls of Group Companies. Major Group Companies are Reliance Industries Limited (including main subsidiaries Reliance Petroleum Limited and Reliance Retail Limited) and Reliance Industrial infrastructure Limited. RELIANCE AT A GLANCE This is the story of a company with a vision of how it grew from being a small trading unit to be ranked among the top 50 emerging market companies in the world. It is the story of how a company helped place India firmly on the world industrial scenario. Taking with a family, a growing family that includes collaborators, suppliers, customers, employees and the largest based in the country. It is the story of how company’s vision has extended to include newer challenges, new goals and most of all it is a story of a company where the â€Å"Growth is Life†. He (Mr. Dhirubhai Ambani) made a beginning by setting up a company viz. Reliance Commercial Corporation. â€Å"Reliance† means reliability, which is the main principle of any business and we believe that this success in business lies in the principle. He created an empire of Reliance in the various fields such as PETROCHEMICALS, POLYMERS, TEXTILES AND PETROLEUM. The expert team of the technocrats of the World Bank has come to conclusions that reliance textile unit is the top most quality conscious textile unit among the developed countries. Reliance Commercial Corporation went public in the year 1971. In the next few years the company made a massive investment exceeding 40,000 cores of rupees in the industrial areas of petroleum, Gas, Chemicals, Textile, Special Economic Zones and life sciences and established supremacy in diverse industrial areas which took the Reliance group to the peak of Industrial areas. History of Reliance – Hazira Reliance Industries Ltd, Hazira started in 1988. RIL, Hazira is one of the flagship companies of reliance group. It is largest integrated Petrochemicals and polyester complex of India. It dealt with various commodities including Nylon and Rayon. Eight years later it started the manufacturing of synthetic fabrics in February 1996. Eight years later it is started with the manufacturing of synthetic fabrics under the brand name of â€Å"Vimal† in textile mills at Naroda. In three years Reliance establish itself as the largest textile group in the country. The Reliance Industries Ltd, Hazira Manufacturing Division at Hazira near Surat in Gujarat is situated in 750 acres land on the banks of river Tapti. The land when procured was very low and marshy and required extensive site development including 7 million cubic meter of soil filling to raise the ground level upto 6ft. In order to protect the environment and avoid ecological disaster, conventional methods were employed to pump out the river sand for hydraulic filling. The marshy soil with load bearing capacity called for extensive pilling work to be carried out. In an unprecedented construction activity around 18,000 piles were driven for the first phase in about 6 months time. Reliance adopted the unique concept of implementing the Phase 1 down stream plants at Hazira with imported raw material (Ethylene) and intermediates (Ethylene Dichloride, EDC) to ensure completion and commissioning of the plants in 24 months time. Reliance is the first complex in the world to starts operations based on imported Ethylene, British Petroleum followed then. Ethylene unloading terminal is built in collaboration with LT and LGA of Germany. Ethylene storage is one of the largest in the world. It has 2 tanks with uble wall protection and concrete wall outside as an advance safety feature Contribution to the economy Reliance Group revenue is equivalent to about 3. 5% of India’s GDP. The Group contributes nearly 10% of the country’s indirect tax revenue and over 6% of India’s export. Reliance is trusted by an investor family of over 3. 1% million-India largest. Abbreviations and acronyms AITT All-India Trade Test AOCP attendant operator (chemical plant) API active pharmaceutical ingredient ATI advanced training institutes. ATS Apprenticeship Training Scheme BTC basic training centre cGMP current good manufacturing practices CTS Craftsmen Training Scheme DCS distributed control system DGET Directorate General of Employment and Training GDP gross domestic product HOCL Hindustan Organic Chemicals Limited HRD human resources development HRM human resources management ITC industrial training centre ITI industrial training institute MITI model industrial training institute NAC National Apprenticeship Certificate NSCI National Safety Council of India NCVT National Council of Vocational Training. PLC programmable logic controller RD research and development RIC related instruction centre RIL Reliance Industries Limited SCVT State Council for Vocational Training SHE safety, health and environment SOP standard operating procedures SSI mall-scale industry VET vocational education and training INTRODUCTION OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES The chemical industry is a base of modern society. It is huge, one of the largest industries in the world. As societies and economies grow, so does the chemical industry. It is of strategic importance to the sustainable development of national economies. The world chemical industry employs an estimated 14 million workers and accounts for about 10 percent of national GDP in developed countries. World trade in chemicals reached a record US$700 billion, and the industry is still growing. The chemical industry in Western Europe shows steady growth, with annual averaged growth of over 4 per cent. The Asian chemical industry shows an increase reaching almost two-digit growth every year. The chemical industry keeps improving our standard of living and provides many of the essentials that our society needs. The chemical industry produces more than 70,000 products. It is a highly capitalized industry. Much of the manual work has been replaced by automation, but significant parts of the operation still rely on human input. Workers’ skills are therefore crucial to the stable production and growth of the industry. The aim of this study is to explore in depth some practices of vocational education and training (VET) in the chemical industry in India, which is one of the leading chemical producers in Asia. Overview of the Chemical Industry in India The chemical industry is one of the oldest industries in India. It not only plays a crucial role in meeting people’s daily needs but also significantly contributes to the industrial and economic growth of the country. In 2004, the total sales of the Indian chemical industry were about US$28 billion, or about 2 per cent of global chemical sales, which stand at about US$1. 7 trillion. It is the third largest in Asia and ranks at 12th in world chemical production. Some statistics on the contribution of the Indian chemical industry to the national economy are given below: The Indian chemical industry at a glance in 2005 Total sales: US$32 billion. The chemical industry constitutes: – 7. 5 per cent of India’s total GDP; – 10 per cent of India’s total exports; and – 12 per cent of industrial production in India. Unionized chemical workers account for 17 per cent of the total unionized workforce (or about 1 million unionized workers in the chemical industry). 20 per cent of excise and import duty collection The Indian chemical industry is highly fragmented. The primary cause of the fragmentation is due to the Government’s corporate licensing policies, allowing various sizes of chemical firms in order to address the supply and demand gap of chemical products. The sectoral classification of the Indian chemical industry in 2004 is given in figure 1. The dyestuff sector is one of the important segments in the chemical industry in India, which is closely related with other chemical sectors. The textile industry is the largest consumer of dyestuffs, nearly 80 per cent of total dyestuff production. While in the 1950s, India imported dyestuff, the country’s dyestuff sector has grown into a very strong industry and has become a major foreign currency earner. India has emerged as a global supplier of dyestuff and dye intermediates, in particular reactive, acid, vat and direct dyes. Fertilizers and pesticides played an important role in the â€Å"Green Revolution† of the 1960s and 1970s. But the consumption of pesticides in India has been decreasing, and is now lower than any other developing country. India now turns to be an exporter of agrochemicals, showing an impressive growth in the last five years. In 2004, fertilizers accounted for about 18 per cent of India’s total chemical production. Indian chemical industry: Sectoral classification, 2005 Fertilizers; 18% Man-made fibres; 16% Pharmaceuticals; 15% Organic chemicals; 15% Soap toiletries; 11% Polymers; 6% Inorganic chemicals; 8% Paints dyes; 5%. Pesticides; 3% Other chemicals; 3% National framework of vocational education and training (VET) Introduction In 1947 India was independent. In the early 1950s, India launched a five-year plan with massive industrializing drives to stimulate workers to acquire high skills. To meet this end, the Directorate General of Employment and Training (DGET) in the Union Ministry of Labour initiated the Craftsmen Training Scheme (CTS) by establishing about 50 ITIs for imparting skills in various vocational trades to meet the increasing skilled workforce requirements for the advancement of technologies and the industrial growth of the country. VET is a concurrent subject of both central and state Governments in India. VET-related matters, such as the development of training schemes, training policies, training standards, training procedures, organization of trade tests and issuance of certifications, are the responsibility of the central Government, whereas the implementation of training schemes largely rests with state Governments. The central Government created the National Council of Vocational Training (NCVT), a tripartite body representing central Government, employers and trade unions. Similarly, the State Council for Vocational Training (SCVT) was established at the state level, with the same purposes as the NCVT. At the national level, at present there are two main vocational training initiatives, which are the CTS and the ATS. 1 The Government and chemical companies have dual responsibility for providing workers with training under the Apprentices Act, 1961. Craftsmen Training Scheme (CTS) Objectives The objectives of the CTS are: 1. To ensure steady flow of skilled workers in all industrial/service sectors; 2. To raise the quality and quantity of industrial production by systematic training of workers; and 3. To reduce unemployment among the youth by equipping them with suitable skills for industrial workers. Salient features of the CTS Training is imparted in 50 engineering and 48 non-engineering trades through the industrial training institutes (ITIs) and the industrial training centres (ITCs) located throughout the country. The period of training varies from one to three years. The entry qualification varies from 8th to 12th class completed students, depending on the requirements of trade. The training institutes have necessary infrastructural facilities. These institutes are required to conduct training courses as per the training curriculum decided by the NCVT. All-India Trade Tests (AITTs) are conducted in January and July every year by the DGET. After the completion of the training at the ITIs and ITCs, trainees must appear in the All India Trade Tests. National Trade Certificates will be awarded to those who pass the tests. The Certificates are recognized by the central Government for the purpose of recruitment at the central Government and the state-owned corporations. About 70 per cent of the training period is allotted to practical training and the rest to theoretical training relating to trade theory, calculation and science, engineering, social studies including environmental science and family welfare. Broad-based modular training is offered in four central model industrial training institutes (MITIs). This training offers an advantage of re-orienting the training modules as per the changing skill requirements in the industry. Trades related to the chemical plant operators. The trades related to chemical plant operators, the period of training and their entry qualifications under the CTS are summarized in table 1. Table 1. Trade, period of training and entry qualifications for chemical plant operators under the CTS Trade Period of training Entry qualifications Maintenance mechanic(chemical plant) 2 years Passed 10th class examination with physics, chemistry and mathematics under 10+2 system of education or its equivalent. Instrument mechanic (chemical plant) (a) 2 years (b) 6 months. Passed 10th class examination under 10+2 system of education with physics, chemistry and mathematics as one of the subjects or its equivalent. Passed B. Sc. with physics and chemistry. Attendant operator (chemical plant) (a) 2 years (b) 6 months Apprenticeship Training Scheme (ATS) With the growing tempo of planned economy giving rise to increased industrial activity both in the public and the private sectors. Systematic trained manpower is vital for Industrial development and productivity. Apprenticeship training is the most important programme for training skilled workers for these industries. India is one among the very few countries having a comprehensive and systematic Apprenticeship Training Scheme. In order to regulate and control of training the Apprenticeship Act of 1850 was enacted. Later on Parliament considered it necessary to enact a more comprehensive Act as the old Act if 1850 was found quite inadequate and so instead of just amending it, the new Act containing more detailed provision was enacted on the unanimous acceptance of recommendations of Shiva Rao Committee in 1961. Subsequently Apprenticeship Rules were framed for smooth implementation of the Act in 1962 and it was enforced with effect from 1963. Its scope was extended in 1973 to cover Engineering Graduates and Diploma holders. At present 254 specified groups of Industries are brought under the purview of Act 137 trades are designed under the apprenticeship Act. The ATS is operated under the Apprentices Act, 1961. The law requires all companies to provide apprentice training to entry-level workers. Firstly, we will briefly discuss the aims and the background of the Act, followed by the discussion concerning the ATS. BRIEF OBJECTIVES OF THE APPRENTICESHIP ACT 1961 ARE : (i)To regulate the programme of training of apprentices in the industry so as to confirm to the prescribed syllabi, period of training etc prescribed by the Central Apprenticeship Council, and (ii)To utilize fully the facilities available in the industry for imparting practical training with a view of meeting the requirements of skilled workers in the Industries. TRAINING OF TRADE APPRENTICES CONSISTS OF : 1. Basic Training 2. On the job training or Shop floor Training. 3. Related Instructions. INTRODUCTION. The Apprenticeship Act, 1961, come into force with effect from Ist March, Craftsman Training was proposed to be imparted under the Industrial Conditions on the shop floor. PURPOSE OF THE APPRENTICESHIP ACT, 1961. The Apprenticeship Act, 1961provides for the regulation and control of training for Apprentices in the country. This Act has been enacted in order to regularise the programme of their practical training and to ensure fully utilisation of the available training facilities. The Apprenticeship Training Scheme has two fold objectives namely :- ( a )Maximum utilisation of training potential to relieve unemployment and ( b )To give more intensive training to the Apprentices so as to bring their level of skill to entertain specified standards. Evolution of the Apprentices Act, 1961 The National Apprenticeship Scheme started in 1959 on a voluntary basis. The Apprentices Act was enacted in 1961 and promulgated on 1 March 1962. Initially, the Act envisaged training of trade apprentices. The Act was amended in 1973 to include training of graduates and diploma engineers as â€Å"graduate† and â€Å"technician† apprentices, respectively. The Act was further amended in 1986 to bring it within its purview the training of the 10 + 2 vocational training system as â€Å"technician (vocational)† apprentices. Administration of the Apprentices Act, 1961 The responsibility of administering the Apprentices Act, 1961, lies in the DGET. The DGET is also responsible for implementation of the Act with respect to trade apprentices in the central Government through the undertakings and departments. This is done through six regional directorates of apprenticeship training located at Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai, Hyderabad, Kanpur and Faridabad. State apprenticeship advisers are responsible for the implementation of the Act at the state level. In addition, the Department of Education in the Union Ministry of Human Resources Development (HRD) is responsible for the implementation of the Act with respect to graduate, technician and technician (vocational) apprentices. This is done through four boards of apprenticeship training located at Kanpur, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai. Under the Act, the chemical industry is included in the categories of manufacture of basic chemicals and chemical products and manufacture of rubber, plastic, petroleum and coal products. APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING SCHEME (ATS) The Central Apprenticeship Council is a responsible organ to the ATS. The Council advises the central Government on designing the policies and prescribing the standards and principles in respect of the ATS. It is a tripartite organ. The Union Minister of Labour is the Chairperson of the Council and the Minister of State for Education is the Vice-Chairperson. COVERAGE The apprenticeship training is obligatory on the part of employers in public and private establishments; they must have the requisite training infrastructures, as laid down in the Act. In 2005 nearly 18,000 establishments engaged in the apprentice training, of which 254 companies or groups of companies in the chemical industry were covered by The Apprentices Act. For the attendant operators in the chemical plant, chemical companies must hire one apprentice trainee for every ten workers, excluding non-skilled workers. QUALIFICATIONS AND RECRUITMENT OF TRADE APPRENTICES. A person male or female not less than 14 years of age is qualified for being engaged as Apprentices. The entry educational qualifications for the Apprentice vary from 8th class or equivalent matric with mathematics and Ph/Chem/Biology/ English as prescribed by CAC. The apprentice before engagement should also satisfy such standards of physical fitness as prescribed. The recruitment of apprentices is the responsibility of the employers . Employers can seek the assistance of Employment exchanges, Industrial Training Institutes, Directorate of Technical Education and Industrial Training, Apprenticeship section, Placement section or advertisement through press can be recruited in the month of Feb/Mar or Aug/Sept of every year against the assessed vacant seats. The apprentices recruited during March/September shall complete their apprenticeship training during either of these two months and this subsequently helps them to appear in the All India Trade Tests of Apprentices held in the months of April and October every year without any idol period between the completion date of training and the dates of All India Trade Tests. The establishment can recruit trade apprentices from either of the following categories 1. Passed out trainees of Industrial Training Institutes. 2. Freshers possessing minimum educational qualifications. BENEFITS TO WEAKER SECTIONS While recruiting apprentice employer has to ensure that scheduled castes/ scheduled tribes, minorities, physically handicapped and other weaker sections of the society get fair deal and are engaged as prescribed. CONTRACT OF APPRENTICESHIP Every person or if he/she is a minor his Guardian shall have to execute a contract of apprenticeship with employer in the prescribed form, which has to be registered with the concerned Apprenticeship Advisor. The Apprenticeship training will be imparted in pursuance of this contract. The employer and the apprentices shall carry out their obligations under this contract. If where the contract of apprentice is terminated through failure on the part of the employer to carry out the term of contract and condition ( as notified under apprenticeship rules 6), he shall pay to apprentice compensation as prescribed. In the event of premature termination of contract of apprentice for failure on the part of apprentice to carry out the term and condition of contract ( as notified under Apprenticeship Rule 1991 ). The surety at the request of apprentices hereby guarantor to the employer the payment of such amount as determined by the State Apprenticeship Advisor and towards the cost of training. The liability of surety is limited to amount equal to the three month stipend last drawn and with interest at 12% per annum. BASIC TRAINING AND RELATED INSTRUCTION The period of basic training is most of the cases is either one year or two years. Apprentices who have undergone institutional training of one or two years in I. T. Is are not required to under go basic training. The time to be spent on related instructions during this period is 7 hours/ week i.e. one day per week. Where an employer employs in his establishment to 250 or more workers the entire responsibility for imparting basic training to apprentices is the responsibility of the employer himself. In case an employer in his establishment less than 250 workers, he shall have to bear only 50 percent of the cost of the basic training, the other 50 percent is borne by the Government. As regards Related Instructions, it is imparted at the cost of Government. Employer is re-imbrued related instruction charges at the rate of Rs. 50 per apprentices per month, when he arranges to impart related instructions. SHOP FLOOR OR ON THE JOB TRAINING RELATED INSTRUCTIONS. The remaining period of Apprenticeship which in most of cases is one year or two years is on the job/shop floor training and it will be the entire responsibility of the responsibility of the employer whether he employs less than 250 workers in his establishment. Several employers may join together to form training-co-operatives for the purposes of providing on the job (practical) Training related instructions. Related Instructions will be imparted during this period also at the cost of the Government. The training will be according o the standards prescribed by the Government in consultation with the Central Apprenticeship Council or as laid down in the prescribed syllabi. OBILIGATION OF EMPLOYERS. The employer shall provide the apprentice with the training in the trade in accordance with the provisions of the Apprentices Act and the Rules made thereunder and in terms of the contract of Apprenticeship. If he is not himself qualified in the trade, he shall ensure that a duly qualified is placed in charge of the training of Apprentices. He shall look after the health, safety and welfare of Apprentices. If personal injury is caused to an apprentice by an accident arising out of in course of his training as an apprentices, his employer shall be liable to pay compensation in accordance with the provisions of the workmens compensation Act. An employer shall pay stipend to every apprentice during the entire period of apprenticeship training. The minimum rates of stipend are as follows :- First Year Rs. 820/- per month Second Year Rs 940/- per month Third Year Rs 1090/- per month Fourth Year Rs 1230/- per month Employer can pay any higher rates of stipend to attract better candidates . Apprentices shall not receive any Bonus or incentive money. Hostel accommodation if available may be provided to the Apprentices but this not obligatory under the Act. OBLIGATION OF APPRENTICE Every apprentice shall learn his trade conscientiously and diligently. He shall attend practical and related instruction classes regularly and shall carry out all lawful orders of his employers and superiors in the establishment. In the matter of conduct and discipline the apprentice shall be governed by the rules and regulations applicable to workers in the trade in the establishment. He will be a trainee and not a worker and shall not take part in any strike etc. He shall also carry out his obligations under the contract of Apprenticeship. HOURS OF WORK,LEAVE ETC. The weekly and daily hours of work of an apprenticeship shall not exceed the following:- Daily: Not more than 8 hours (includes the time spent on related instructions). Weekly : Total number of hours per week shall be 42 to 48 (including the time spent on related instructions. ) Trade apprentices during the third subsequent years of apprenticeship shall work for the same number of hours per week as the workers in the trade in the establishment in which the trade apprentice is undergoing apprenticeship training. No apprentice shall be engaged on training between the hours of 10 P. M and 6 A. M. or required to work overtime except with the prior approval of the Apprenticeship Advisor. An apprentice shall be entitled to have casual,/medical and extra-ordinary leave as per leave rules of the establishment. If no proper leave rules exist in the establishment the apprentice shall be entitled to total 37 days leave of different types i. e. casual 12 days, medical 15 days extra-ordinary 10 days. Grant of such leave shall be subject to the following conditions:- a)That every apprentice engaged in an establishment which works for 5 days in a week(with a total of 45 hours per week) shall put in minimum attendance of 200 days in a year out of which one sixth namely 33 days shall be devoted to related instructions and 167 days to practical training. b) That every apprentice engaged in an establishment which works for 5 1/2 days or 6 days in a week shall put in minimum attendance of 240 days in a year out of which one sixth namely 40 days shall be devoted to related instructions and 200 days to practical training. In case an apprentice could not put in minimum period of attendance or could not complete his essential part of training for circumstances beyond his control, his period of training could be extended for a period of up to six months under Apprenticeship Act rule 5(2). Employer has to continue to pay the stipend for the extended period of training. FINAL TRADE TEST At the end of their training the apprentices are trade tested by the National Council Of Vocational Training . These All India Trade Tests under the Apprentices Act 1961are held twice a year some time in April and October. Every apprentice who passes this test is awarded National Apprenticeship Certificate which has been recognized by the Central and State Governments for the purposes of appointments in subordinate posts and services. EMPLOYMENT ON COMPLETION OF APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING. It shall not be obligatory on the part of the employer to offer any employment to an apprentice nor shall it be obligatory on the part of the apprentice to accept an employment under the employer on successful completion of training unless it is specifically provided in the contract of Apprenticeship. SEAT ASSESD/ SEAT UTILISED AS ON 31. 12 . 2005 |S. NO. |SEAT ASSESD |SEAT UTILISED | | |PUBLIC SECTOR |PRIVATE SECTOR |TOTAL |PUBLIC SECTOR |PRIVATE SECTOR |TOTAL | |1. |2541 |2821 |5362 |1779 |1330 |3109 | The role of the chemical industry in the national VET framework Chemical companies take the following roles and initiatives as their commitments to the national vocational education system: a) To deliver basic and practical training for apprentices in the industry by the enterprise, with the whole cost borne by the enterprise; b). To appoint  the experts from these training centres as members of the curriculum committee at the national level to draft the curricula for the Craftsmen and Apprenticeship Training Programme; c) To appoint the experts from these training centres as examiners and paper setters for the Craftsmen, Apprenticeship and Instructor Training Programmes; and d) To appoint the experts from the training centres as members of advisory committees, such as the Central Apprenticeship Council, the NCVT, the State Apprenticeship e) Council and the SCVT, as well as advisory committees of ITIs and ATIs. The companies on their own fund their in-house and external training programmes for their employees. Liberalization of the Indian chemical market and VET When liberalization hit the Indian chemical industry in the early 1990s, most of the chemical companies – regardless of the number of employees – were affected by a massive drive of cost reduction due to increased competition stemming from globalization. Before liberalization arrived in the chemical industry, the Government of India devised protective schemes to protect its industry and domestic market. In fact, the chemical industry was one of the major forces urging the Government to take protective measures. The rationale was that if the industry were not protected, it would have been wiped out, causing a loss to India’s exchequer. Under the protected market, chemical companies produced only enough to make minimum profits. The Government restricted the production capacity through corporate licensing. Hence, there was no incentive for chemical companies to improve the quality of product, reduce production cost or replace outdated machines and equipment with state-of the- art high-tech production systems. Improving workers’ skills in order to increase productivity had been barely considered. Once workers were employed by chemical companies, they received initial training but nothing further. Liberalization and the substantial reduction of customs tariffs in 1991 due to globalization shocked the manufacturing sector, in particular the chemical industry. Globalization resulted in the closing down of many small and medium-sized chemical firms in India. To cope with emerging globalization, chemical companies needed to change their business manners and business practices. Cost-cutting was the only way for them to survive in a keenly competitive globalized market. Chemical companies also took drastic measures to reduce workers as an inst.

Biodegradable Polymers: Processes of Degradation

Biodegradable Polymers: Processes of Degradation Introduction The ISO definition of a biodegradable polymer is â€Å"an irreversible process leading to a significant change of the structure of a material, typically characterized by a loss of properties (e.g. integrity, molecular weight, structure or mechanical strength) and/or fragmentation. Degradation is affected by environmental conditions and proceeds over a period of time comprising one or more steps† Biodegradable and compostable processes are essentially the same mechanism of how materials irreversibly breakdown into their fundamental composition, CO2, H2O, CH4 and other low-molecular weight products. The major difference is on how they go about the decomposition, biodegradation occurs naturally where microorganisms metabolise the material, where as composting takes place under strict conditions rate of degradation and the end product is non-toxic. The process of composting will also be affected by the size of the particles, large pieces may not be compostable but shreds of the same material may be compostable. Materials can also be composted at homes and the end product used in gardening, but some materials may not compostable at home and may require an industrial process. Biodegradable and compostable polymers should not be confused with biopolymers, which are naturally occurring polymers that readily degrade in the environment, starch, cellulose, proteins are a few examples of biopolymers, while the former are polymers engineered to degrade in the environment through one or more mechanisms of degradation. The degradation of a polymer should into consideration the other mechanisms of material degradation (oxidation, hydrolysis, photo-degradation, thermal-degradation) which can affect the polymer before or during the biodegradation process, or maybe the only mechanism acting on the polymer [ 41.wang ]. As more people are becoming more eco-conscious and aware of global warming, although not directly responsible, more effort is put into discovering new sustainable plastics and better manufacturability of these degradable polymers. History and why bioplastics? The first polymers, or plastics as it generally known, recorded in history were produced by The Horners Company in London [BPF site] which used horn and tortoiseshell as the predominant early natural plastic in the year 1284. But it is in the early 18th century that the plastic industry started to build up its momentum, it is during the period Alexander Parkes invented the first plastic in the 1850s [makingthemodernworld]. Today polymers are the most widely used material playing in an important role in civil construction to human wellbeing. A pair in Germany were awarded the patent to their invention of Casein Plastic as the first bioplastic derived from milk, but it was in 1990 that ICI Ltd launched the first commercially available biodegradable plastic. With the world consumption of plastics increasing to 100 million tonnes annually , from 5 million tonnes in the 1950s,[M.Avella] and growing at a rate of 4% annually. They can only be recycled or dumped into a landfill, which are becoming scarce [J_H_Song] , and with more governments of the developed world taking advantage of the developing world, where they send their nations waste to be disposed to and where it cannot be dealt efficiently due to the lack of proper facilites. What goes into the landfills cannot be controlled and the mixture of waste releases toxic agents from the more volatile waste, and gases, most notably methane from the other degradable waste, into the atmosphere which would be difficult to capture it everywhere, which is utilised in the U.K. Total solid waste in the EU is 520 Kg/year per person of which 10%-15% is plastics, more than 50 Kg, of which 40% is sent to landfills [mooney brian p] which is about 10 million tonnes, with the EU population at 0.5 billion [eurostat]. Recycling polythene carrier bags rather than producing new plastic has many environmental benefits such as: Reducing energy consumption by almost 67% Produces 33% of sulphur dioxide and 50% of nitrous oxide uses almost 90% less water Emits almost 250% less carbon dioxide One of the most important factors that it saves 1.8 million tonnes of oil for one tonne of polythene recycled. [wasteonline] Not accounting for the total carbon footprint of the process. But recycling is not very efficient process compared to producing new materials, every time plastic is recycled it loses about 10% of it mass, [green plastics] reducing the mass of the material to 73% of its original after only 3 recycles. The current proven world crude oil reserves of about a total of 1,342 billions of barrels[eia.doe.gov, no title], is estimated to run out by 2040[imeche] at current rate of consumption, though there are critics who would oppose these figures, therefore even more urgency in developing sustainable biodegradable polymers by then is required with the population doubling. How they are made? Biodegradable polymers can be based on a variety of environmentally sustainable materials, or a combination of different biomass, and also from bacteria. The most basic material that is used is starch which is abundantly available, large quantities present in corn and potatoes but also all vegetables, and at a low price. Cellulose is another commonly and easily accessible material that is being used to produce bioplastics. Certain oil based polymers have a degree of biodegradability too, polymers such as polycarbonate, polyhydroxybutyrate and poly vinyl alcohol [ BrodyMarsh ] or other biomaterials added to make it biodegradable though it may not be possible for the polymer to degrade 100%. Not all biodegradable polymers are derived from biomaterials or oil some can be synthesised, Aliphatic polyesters [ mulch films ]. Starch Starch molecules are polymers of Glucose molecules, where all the sugars are oriented in the same direction, as shown in the diagram below. Starch is made up of two types of molecules amylose and amylopectin, depending on the type of the plant starch can contain upto 25% amylose and 80% amylopectin [Poon, introduction to organic]. Starch granules diameter are averagely in the range 5-40  µm, depending on the source, they are not suitable in the plastic industry as they are difficult to process during extrusion and injection moulding. Starch therefore has to be processed, physically and chemically, before it can be used as thermoplastic starch, TPS, which usually includes heating it up in the presence of water to form a gelatinous material, but may require further treatment as this type of TPS is not moisture resistant [ 36/41.wang ]. To ensure that polymers were degraded in the environment after their service life starch was mixed with a range of polymers, such as polyethylene [ 50 Ke.Ty ], but because these class of polymers contain non-degradable polymers which will not be degraded, and cannot be seen, they cannot be called biodegradable polymers. Thermoplastics starch are therefore mixed with vinyl alcohol to create composites that tend to be more stable, but reducing the starch content in the thermoplastic polymer composite will reduce the biodegradability of the polymer[37]. TPS mixed with other biodegradable polymers ensure a 100% rate of degradation, which is not the case as mentioned when mixed with other polymers. TPS are mixed with synthetic polymers such as poly-(lactic acids) (PLA), poly(glycolic acids) (PGA) etc. [50,ke.ty] PLA blended with starch can reduce the costs of the polymer in addition to greatly reducing its rate of degradation, the raw materials of PLA is produced by fermenting carbohydrates from renewable sources, such as corn [50]. Cellulose Cellulose is a type of polysaccharide, a carbohydrate, found in plant cell walls and the most abundant organic material on earth, 40% of all organic matter [ green plastics ], it is produced by plants by natural photosynthesis from CO2 and water, at an annual rate of 200 billion tonnes, of which 6 billion tonnes are used [ 45.simon.J ] . Cellulose is similar to starch with the main difference being the molecular arrangement, in starch the molecules are highly branched and in cellulose the molecules are linear. Due to the arrangement molecular structure of cellulose, it cannot be processed into a thermoplastic but has to be converted to derivatives e.g esters and ethers to reduce the intermolecular forces for molecular flow to occur under heat and shearing conditions, unlike processing starch it does not require moisture [ thermoplastic starch ]. Attempts to produce polymers from cellulose, like polymers from starch, during past half a century were discouraged by textbooks expressing that because cellulose has a rigid backbone it cannot be converted to a polymeric material [ 54.yoshioka]. The figure shows various polymer derivatives from starch and cellulose, with the hydrogen in the starch molecules replaced by the R groups to form different polymers [ 14.second grn rev ]. Nitrocellulose, a highly explosive material, for instance is produced by reacting cellulose with a nitrating acid, mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, and with alcohol or a plasticizer, such as camphor to make it more flexible and mouldable, added to stabilise the process [ 40.azom ]. Cellulose acetate is one of the more important and used cellulose derived biodegradable polymers, usually prepared from high grade cellulose, obtained from fast growing tress or cotton linters [ 53.alexander ]. It is commonly prepared by synthesising raw cellulose acetic acid followed by acetic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric acid, which acts as a catalyst, producing primary cellulose acetate, known as cellulose triacetate. The triacetate can then be formed into a solution, using methylene chloride as a solvent, which can then be dry-spun to form fibres, to produce cellulose diacetate. Finally cellulose diacetate can be dissolved, acetone as a solvent, to form fibres known as cellulose acetate [ britannica ]. All three groups of cellulose acetate are similar, what differentiates them is the percentage of hydroxyl groups that are acetylated, according to the Federal Trade Commission, of America, 92% of hydroxyl groups must have acetylated to refer it as a cellulose acetate, els e the generally referred to it as cellulose triacetate [ 52.rulesreg] . To produce a process-able polymer the cellulose acetate particles is mixed with a liquid additive, mixing thoroughly using a high speed mixer resulting into fine grained powder and extruded to form granules. Processing parameters that apply are 20-30D screw-type mixer, temperature range 160-190  °C and pre-drying for 2 hours at 70 °C. These granules can then be subjected to standard thermoplastic processing techniques [ 53.alexander ]. Lignin is another second most abundant component of woody plants, 20% of all organic material [green plastics], which is not yet used to its full potential, small amount used in various industries. There are new methods being developed to produce lignocellulosic biomass. Proteins There is not a huge amount of information available on biodegradable polymers derived from proteins. One reason may be that plants do not contain a high amount of proteins to be efficient enough to produce polymers, such as 100 grams of corn contains only 3.22 grams of proteins but 19.02 grams of carbohydrates, almost 6 times as much. Soybean the highest protein containing 36 grams of protein and almost as much carbohydrates, but yielding only 50% of the crop per unit area when compared to maize [ 61.lobell ]. Protein just like starch and cellulose can be regarded as a polymer made up of chains of various amino acids. Proteins from various crops have been used to produce polymers, especially zein and gluten, produced in maize and wheat respectively. Zein-gluten composite polymer can be produced by having wheat gluten coated with zein, [ 62.kim,sanghoon ] . The process does not require extrusion processes or high temperature, but only requires of zein to be purified. Kim Sanghoon describes a relatively simple method of producing a protein based biodegradable polymer, from gluten, zein, ethanol and distilled water, and compressed in an aluminium mould. Other methods of producing protein based polymers include using wood fibres mixed with gluten is plasticized using glycerol, water and ethanol, and extrusion moulded,[ 65.Wu.Qiangxian ] unlike the Sanghoon method. Sources of proteins used to produce biodegradable polymers include feather-meal, waste animal proteins [60.feathermeal], soy bean [ 58.nanda], egg white [ 39. Egg white ]. Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers Biodegradable polymers can be synthesised in lab, but because the costs involved the materials are further mixed with a natural polymer, usually starch, as it is abundant and cheaply available or a cellulose derived polymer. A few of the synthetic biodegradable polymers to name are polyglycolide (PGA), polylactides (PLA) (also known as Poly (lactic acid)), polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). Synthetic polymers can generally offer greater advantages compared to naturally derived polymer, as they can be engineered to have the desirable properties, and have more consistency, unlike naturally derived polymers they do not depend on the source of the raw material which can influence the properties and quality of the final polymer. Aliphatic polyesters are the most widely and commercially used synthetic polymers available, a few are named above, other polymers that have emerged in the market are polyester containing aromatic moieties. The synthetic biodegradable polymers may be classified into three groups, but the literature will only review polyesters Polyesters Polymers containing both esters and other heteroatom-containing linkages in the main chains Polymers with heteroatom-containing linkages other than ester linkages in the main chain Biodegradable polyesters can be synthesised in a number of ways Polycondensation reaction diols and dicarboxylic acids Self-polycondensation of hydroxyacids Ring opening polymerisation Of the above three processes polycondensation, also known as step-growth polymerisation, and ring opening polymerisation are more widely. Some polyesters synthesised by polycondensation are Poly (lactic acid), Poly (glycolic acid), Polycaprolactone. The process involves the monomers of the two raw material reacting to progressively form long chain polymers, as the secondary name suggests. One disadvantage of the process is that the water production from the reaction must be continuously removed, leading to lengthy reaction times and producing varying chain length polymers. [ reviewed by 75.RaySmith/ 73. Okada ] Poly (lactic acid), a linear aliphatic polyester, based on lactic acid, which can be produced by fermenting carbohydrates or by chemical method. Lactic acid contains both the hydroxyl and carboxyl groups needed for polycondensation, but requires removal of water, by azeotropic distillation, as mentioned, to avoid poor yield, further production methods of various aliphatic polyesters is provided M. Bhattacharya.[ by Bhattacharya p337 in 75.RaySmith ] Ring opening polymerisation is a form of addition polymerisation, where cyclic monomers join a reactive centre (terminal end of a polymer),a range of anionic, cationic and coordinative initiators/catalyst are mentioned in scientific literature, to form long chain polymers though ionic propagation. [R Jerome p77 reviewed by 75.RaySmith]. Ring opening polymerisation is advantageous than polycondensation such that it takes place in milder reaction conditions and there are no side reactions, giving a more controlled end product [ 73.okada ], one of the most used polymers in the market Nylon 6 is produced using this process. The ring-opening polymerisation can be initiated by many organometallic derivatives of metals such as Al, Sn, Y, Nd, Yb, Sm etc, which have d-orbitals of favourable energy, metal alkoxides, e.g. aluminium alkoxides, tin alkoxides, may acts as typical initiators. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are a class of biodegradable polymer, polyesters , produced by using bacteria, e.g. Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Ralstonia etc, especially members of the Halobactereicae, as the production centre. The PHA is synthesised within the bacteria that functions as an energy storing water-insoluble compound in the cytoplasm of the bacteria cell[80.anderson]. Bacteria that do not produce PHA can be modified to produce them, e.g. cloning PHA operon, nucleotide sequences of DNA that control the production of PHA, into E. Coli bacteria allows the production of PHA by the bacteria. PHA are then produced by the bacteria when it supplied with source of high carbon content, like glucose under nutrient-limiting conditions. The described way producing is considerably more expensive than oil based polymers there have been suggestions of using products from the food industry as a feedstock for the bacteria to produce PHA, malt waste from a brewery is one of the suggestions, where b acteria produced upto 70% polymer, of dry cell weight (DCW). [82. Yu.Peter] Recent research groups have been forced to find alternate methods of producing PHA, due to the costs involved in the conventional method, and have been experimenting successfully with transgenic plants, where the only raw materials required would be CO2, for carbon, and sunlight. Other areas that have attracted research to produce polymers of the PHA family are the cyanobacteria, that produce the P(3HB) by oxygenic photosynthesis, but their yield rates are very small compared to the conventional method.Synechococcus MA19, a unicellular thermopile, can store upto 55% DCW. [reviewed by 78. philip] Rubber Rubber is an elastomer and a polymer of isoprene, it can be synthesised or be derived from the Brazilian rubber tree, Hervea Brasiliensis, from which most natural rubber is derived, but unlike the name suggest, over 95% of natural rubber in 2008 was produced in Asia, mostly south Asia, but synthetic rubber still makes a greater portion of the market, 56% of the world supplied with synthetic rubber. Rubber like material was developed based on thermal polymerization epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) with triethlyene glycol diamine (TGD), which produce a polymer behaving as a rubber-like elastomer [reviewd in 107.soybean]. Another method to produce natural rubber is by using PHA, which is obtained from bacteria as described, which will therefore be completely biodegradable. The PHA surface is however hydrophobic making it difficult for the microorganisms to inhabit on the surface an degrade, hence its increasing its shelf life significantly, but still be degradable in a composting environment. [109.rubber bacteria] Properties and Enhancements The most important property for all biodegradable polymers, or degradable polymers, is that are completely degradable into basic components, CO2 CH4 and H2O , including any other organic compound, by the means of microbial attack, or any other naturally occurring process for the polymers that classified as degradable by other means. Properties of biodegradable material should be separated into three categories, the naturally derived polymers, synthetic polymers and the composite of these polymers. Naturally Derived polymers TPS shows excellent degradability and composting ability in the soil, partly due to the water solubility of starch. It also has a good oxygen barrier and is not electrostatically chargeable [ 7.Lorcks ]. Unmodified starch polymer have poor processability and mechanical properties, compared to the other polymers available, but plasticising the starch, by addition of water, can assist in processing of the starch, and treating it at a certain temperature would transform the starch into TPS, which show thermoplastic behaviour and properties. As seen in Figure the pure form of TPS has the least period of degradation, but treating it with other biodegradable polymer to enhance its properties increases the time it takes to completely degrade. Cellulose in water-insoluble and like starch fully degradable, and composed of D-gylcopyranoside units, but unlike starch, linked by ÃŽ ±-(1-4) bonds, it is linked by ÃŽ ²-(1-4) bonds. The molecular arrangement of cellulose, explained previously, and the bond type contributes to the longer periods it takes to degrade, which is transferred to the polymer it is based on. Cellulose will readily decompose on heating, therefore cannot be heated to process, but is synthesised into cellulose acetate which like starch shows properties and characteristics of a thermoplastic, but the time it takes to degrade is reduced as the cellulose content of the polymer is reduced. Cellulose and starch the two of most used and abundant organic compounds having similar properties, except the time to full degradation, both have the characteristic of their glass transition temperature and melting temperature being close to their decomposition temperature. M. Gaspar [83.reduce water absoption] conducted experiments to examine and improve water absorption in starch based polymers. The experiment contains four specimens of TPS, TPS w/Cellulose, TPS w/hemicelluloses, TPS/polycaprolactone and TPS w/zein each composite having the same proportion, by weight, of the additive. The results showed that TPS w/zein had the highest tensile strength Youngs modulus and TPS w/cellulose the lowest tensile strength and TPS w/polycaprolactone the lowest Youngs modulus. The table shows a few of the mechanical properties of the polymers described above, noting that the 2 different types of starch have significantly differently poreprties. Film type Test condition Tensile strength (MPa) Elongation at break (%) Water vapor permeability (gmm/m2daykPa) Reference Cassava starch 25 °C 75% RH 9.0-17.0 9.0-28.0 [86] Corn starch 25 °C 75% RH 3.8-4.3 4.0-10.0 [86] Low density polyethylene 38 °C 90% RH 7.6-17.3 500.0 0.08 [88] High density polyethylene 38 °C 90% RH 17.3-34.6 300.0 0.02 [88] Cellulose acetate 38 °C 90% RH 48.5-82.7 15.0-45.0 [88] Polyester 38 °C 90% RH 178.0 70.0-100.0 [88] Cellophane 38 °C 90/0% RH 7.27 [89] PLA is a synthetic biodegradable polymer, that is brittle and has poor impact strength, leading to failure of the material by cracking and tearing, and therefore preventing a more widespread use of the polymer in the packaging industry. Another PLA property is its natural yellow tint, which again is a factor that prevents it uses in the packaging industry, which leads to poor presentation of a consumer product. PLA is therefore blended with other biodegradable polymers (to keep it 100% biodegradable) to improve the properties that are most desirable. Usually is PLA mixed with plasticizers such as pole-ÃŽ µ-caprolactone, poly (vinyl acetate), starch, poly(hydroxyl butyrate), providing the PLA with more ductility, but having a negative effect on the tensile strength[91 to 99]. The brittleness of PLA can be counter acted by mixing it with a plasticiser, which also reduces the already low glass transition temperature further reducing its end product applications.[100 101] F.Byrne [90] tested PLA mixed various available masterbatches, commercially available polymer additives, to check the enhancements, and the results are as in table, of them all PLA dcS511-Ice clear appears to be the best option for an additive as it removes the tint from the material. Table Thermal, mechanical, optical and surface properties of PLA and PLA/masterbatch blends Properties determined Units PLA Biomax Strong PLA dcS511 PLA dcS515-N PLA dcS511-Ice clear Glass transition temperature oC 59 59 59 58 58 Melting temperature oC 150 150 151 150 151 Crystallinity % 9 0 5 7 4 Tensile strength MPa 68 66 67 66 64 Tensile modulus MPa 2.3 2.0 1.9 2.0 2.1 Impact strength N 90 390 90 90 90 Shore D hardness 69D 59D 64D 69D 64D Haze % 19.5 67.9 20.6 13.5 10.9 Yellowness index 7.2 10.0 5.8 10.8 0 Another method of improving the properties of polymers is by producing polymers, an example can be of PLA matrix with natural fibres which may include plasticizers, but still remain completely biodegradable. An experiment included using polypropylene (PP) and PLA matrix, including PLA with plasticizer, with flax fibres. The pure PLA had better mechanical properties than the pure PP, and reduced tensile strength as composites. The results showed the PLA with 30 wt.% flax fibre are a 50% stronger than similar composites made from PP, another study [104 sisal] used sisal fibre in a PLA/Starch composite but resulted in poor mechanical properties. PLA/triacetin, plasticizer, composite with flax fibre reduced the strength of the composite but made it more ductile, effect of the plastizer. PP/flax fibre of 30 wt.% are commonly used in industrial applications that has an elongation to break of 2.7% with a tensile strength of 29MPa, even though fibres greatly increased the PLA strength its ductility was reduced to successfully replace the PP composite a suitable fibre could be researched or PLA/15wt.%Triacetin with elongation to break 2.6% and tensile strength 37.2MPa could be used. When using natural fibres in a polymer matrix composite the inconsistency of natural fibres length and properties must be considered, therefore using synthetic biodegradable fibres, cellulosic origins, an even quality can be obtained[105.herrmann]. Degradation Oil based plastics are resistant to biodegradation, and most other forms of degradation, as the micro organisms responsible for the degradation of these polymers are unable to consume it, mainly due the impenetrable oil based matrix which are they are made from and the surface in contact with the soil is smooth [reviewed in 113 p,p,future] . Another class of polymers are the partially degradable are oil based polymers composites with a easily degradable fibre, e.g. starch, which breakdown as the microorganisms attack the starch and leave the oil based polymer particles behind, which degrade at a much slower rate, but unnoticeable because of the size. Complete degradation of a material occurs through various mechanisms, by microorganisms, light, water etc. Biodegradation can be generally be classified into two categories aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation, where the final products of each of the degradation are CO2, H20 and biomass of aerobic and CO2, CH4 and biomass of anaerobic. CPolymer + O2 à   CO2 + H2O + CResidue + C Based biomass Generally in plastics the amorphous region is more vulnerable to degradation by hydrolysis, as water is easily penetrated into this region. The degradation can be classified into surface degradation and bulk degradation, where surface degradation occurs when the degrading agents are not able to penetrate into the bulk layer of the material and act only on the material surface. Spherulites may be visible on the material undergoing surface degradation. It must be noted that materials in the environment may not be degraded by one specific mode of degradation but a combination of different mechanisms, so it would be sensible to consider degradation of a polymer in the soil to have two mechanisms of degradation acting on it, biodegradation and hydrolytic degradation, and photo-degradation if it is exposed to sunlight. Degradation can be considered to occur in two phases, disintegration and mineralization. The disintegration of polymers may occur through hydrolytic degradation, photo-degradation or thermal-degradation by exoenzymes, mediated or not [114. scott]. The hydrolytic degradation is most likely to occur and have a greater role in the process of the biodegradation of the polymer, the figure below shows the subdivisions of hydrolysis. The mineralization takes place when the microorganisms start to metabolize the disintegrated polymer particles and convert them to common inherent digestion products [6 Krzan]. Natural rubber exists in the environment the various microorganisms required to metabolise the polymer are already widely distributed in the environment. The process starts by the oxidation at the double bond of the polymer chain, leading to the formation of carbonyl, peroxide or epoxide groups. The microorganisms secrete a rubber degrading extracellular enzyme, which in a sense start a chain reaction, as lower-molecular weight fractions are further metabolised by the microorganisms. An industrial scale degradation